Year of the Five Emperors (193) and Severan dynasty (193 - 235)

18.  Pertinax (Publius Helvius Pertinax) 192 - 193 - was born on Aug 1, 126 in Alba Pompeia (modern Alba) in north western Italy - he served the empire in many capacities, and was made emperor by the Praetorian Guard on Dec 31, 192 following the assassination of Commodus - he emulated Marcus Aurelius, but eventually disappointed the Praetorian guard by not gifting them as expected - he was assassinated by them on March 28, 193.

19. Didius Julianus (Marcus Didius Severus Julianus) 193 - was born on Feb 2, 137 to a prominent family from Milan - subsequent to the assassination of Pertinax, the Praetorian Prefect offered the throne to the highest bidder - offering 25,000 sesterces to every soldier, Didius became the next emperor, supported by the military - a number of the provincial leaders refused to acknowledge Didius, and declared Severus as emperor - he gained control of the Roman fleet in Ravenna and defeated the Praetorian guard which had by now lapsed into debauchery - refusing an offer by Didius as co-emperor, Severus proceeded to be declared the new emperor by the senate, who also condemned Didius to death - a soldier killed Didius on June 1, 193.

20. Niger (Gaius Pescennius Niger) 193 - 194 was proclaimed emperor by his Syrian troops upon the murder of Pertinax - he was born of an old Italian equestrian family around 135 - 140 - beaten to Rome by Severus, he was defeated in 194 and fled to Parthia, where he killed in 194.

21. Albinus (Decimus Clodius Septimius Albinus) 193 - 197 was proclaimed emperor by his Iberian troops upon the murder of Pertinax - he was born into an aristocratic family at Hadrumetum in Africa (modern day Sousse, Tunisia) - he was defeated by Severus at the battle of Lugdunum (Lyon, France) and died on Feb 19, 197 - his wife and sons being executed with him and the inhabitants of Lugdunum being cruelly treated as an example.
22. Severus (Lucius Septimius Severus) 193 - 211 was born on April 11, 145 at Leptis Magna, a city in modern day Lybia of northern Africa which rivalled Carthage and Alexandria in importance due to their native son becoming emperor - he was leading the troops in Pannonia (between Dalmatia and Dacia) when Pertinax was assassinated - he is cited as being responsible for the final transformation of the Roman Empire into a military dictatorship - he is also credited with encouraging the persecution against Christians - basically he opposed conversion to the troublesome sects of Christianity and Judaism - he died at Eboracum (modern day York in northern England) on Feb 4, 211.

23. Caracalla (Lucius Septimius Bassianus) 198 - 217 was born on Apr 4, 188 in Lugdunum (Lyon, France)as the eldest son of Severus - he co-ruled with Severus starting in 198, and with his brother Geta starting in 209 - when his father died in 211, he was co-ruler with Geta, whom he had executed to attain sole control - he was known to be brutal - bought the loyalty of the army, but was assassinated by a personal bodyguard near Harran (in Turkey, near Syrian border - also where Lot lived) on Apr 8, 217.

24. Geta (Publius Septimius Geta) 209 - 211 was born on March 7, 189 in Rome as the youngest son of Severus, and was made co-ruler with Severus and Caracalla in 209 - after his father's death, he constantly argued with Caracalla, until his murder at his brother's behest on Dec 26, 211.

25. Macrinus (Marcus Opellius Macrinus) 217 - 218 was born around 165 in Caesaria (presently Cherchell, about 55 miles west of Agiers in modern Algeria) he was appointed Praetorian Praefect by Caracalla - he was confirmed by the senate as the successor of Caracalla - the surviving women of the Severan dynasty conspired against him to put another Severan on the throne - they succeeded in having Elagabalus, the wrongly proclaimed illegitimate son of Severus, proclaimed emperor on May 18, 218 - Macrinus fled but was captured and executed in Cappadocia in June, 218.

26. Elegabalus (Varius Avitus Bassianus) 218 - 222 was born to a Syrian woman and cousin of Caracalla  around 203 - during his short rule he advanced the worship of Helios, the Sun - married 5 times with women and finally to Hierocles, a man - he was convinced to name Severus Alexander, his 13-year old cousin as his heir, and was murdered along with his mother by the Praetorian guard on March 11, 222.

27. Alexander Severus (Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander) 222 - 235 was born on Oct 1, 208 in Arca Caesaria (modern day Akkar in Lebanon) - was declared emperor at the age of 14 while being under the domination of his mother Julia Avita Mamaea - she took care of his education and surrounded him with wise counsellors - he lost the favour of the military, and on was assassinated along with his mother on Mar 18/19, 235 in Moguntiacum (modern Mainz, Germany) marking the end of the short-lived Severan dynasty.

Age of the Antonines (96 - 192 AD)

12. Nerva (Marcus Cocceius Nerva) 96 - 98 was born in the village of Narni, about 50 kilometers north of Rome on Nov 8, 30 AD - he had been faithful to the Julio-Claudian dynasty - he tried to bring about financial reform and restore the power of the senate - he was not able to assert his authority over the Praetorian guard - being childless, he adopted Trajan, a military leader and highly respected, as his heir and successor - he died of natural causes on Jan 25, 98.

13.  Trajan (Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus) 98 - 117 was born in Italica (near Seville) in the southern province of Baetica (Andalusia) in Spain on Sept 18, 53 AD - although born in Spain, he was of Italian heritage - he is well known for his exploits in ancient Dacia, which is now Romania - Traian is a common Romanian name - in 106 he defeated King Decebalus and took the capital of Sarmizegethusa which is in Hunedoara county (near Timisoara) - he became somewhat overambitious in his eastern exploits and wanted to conquer all of Mesopotamia - it was during this time that he fell ill and died on Aug 8, 117.

14.  Hadrian (Publius Aelius Hadrianus) 117 - 138 was born in Italica, the same as Trajan, on Jan 24, 76 - he was of Italo-Hispano descent and adopted by Trajan to succeed him - Hadrian realized that it would not be good to keep on expanding and set the limits to the empire - he built Hadrian's wall in order to mark the end of the empire, along with the Rhine and Danube also being borders - he had a policy of peace through strength, even threat - he is known as the touristic emperor having covered all parts of the empire during his administration - he had a keen interest in architecture and the Pantheon was completed during his reign - he was a humanist and known as an Epicurean - he mitigated, but did not abolish slavery - humanized the legal code and forbade torture - built libraries, aqueducts, baths and theatres for the people - he fought the 2nd war against the Jews, seeing them as a constant source of rebellions in the empire - he died of heart failure on July 10, 138.

15. Antonius Pius (Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antonius) 138 - 161 was born on Sept. 19, 86 in Nîmes in southern Gaul, presently southern France - he was adopted by Hadrian to succeed as emperor on the condition that he adopt the nephew of Hadrian's wife, Marcus Annius Verus (Marcus Aurelius) and Lucius Verus, son of Aelius Verus - Antonius was not a military man but a scholar - his reign was one of relative peace, except a few minor disturbances in Mauritania, Judea and Britain - he died of fever at Lorium of Etruria, about 19 km from Rome, on March 7, 161.

16 a. Marcus Aurelius (Marcus Aurelius Antonius Augustus) 161 - 180 was born on April 26, 121 - his family originally was from Ucubi, a small town southeast of Cordoba in Andalusia in southern Spain - however, Marcus was probably born in Rome where he was raised - he was trained in oratory, and was fluent in Greek - known as a Stoic philosher, he became co-emperor with Lucius, but was effectively sole ruler - Lucius was the military ruler and led campaigns in Parthia, Antioch and Armenia - starting in the 160's, the Germanic tribes started crossing the Danube and moving into Roman territory - when Lucius returned from the frontier wars the army brought with them the Antonine plague - possibly small pox or the measles - which spread through the empire from 160 to 185 - both emperors succumbed to this plague, first Lucius in 169, and subsequently Marcus, who died in the city of Vindobona (now Vienna, Austria) on March 17, 180.

16 b. Lucius Verus (Lucius Aurelius Verus) 161 - 169 was born on Dec 15, 130 - he was the son of Lucius Aelius Caesar, the adopted son and intended successor of Hadrian - upon Lucius' untimely death, Hadrian adopted Antonius Pius on the condition that Antonius in turn adopted both Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus - he fell victim to the Antonine Plague and died in early 169.

17. Commodus (Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antonius) 180 - 192 was born on Aug 31, 161, the natural son of Marcus Aurelius and the last of the ruling Antonines - he was made co-emperor since 177, making it clear that he was to be the successor - at 19 he became the sole emperor - early in his reign there was a conspiracy engineered by his sister Lucilla, who was exiled to Capri - war broke out in Dacia and Britain, but the Roman armies prevailed - Commodus became a vain and cruel emperor, executing a number of senators, and finally taking to the arena himself - as gladiator, he enjoyed killing both human and animal - his excesses are said to have contributed to his final demise at the hands of the Praetorian guard - he was assassinated on Dec 31, 192.

Year of the Four Emperors (68 - 69 AD) and Flavian Dynasty (69 - 96 AD)

6.  Galba (Servius Sulpicius Galba) 68 - 69 AD was born on Dec 24, 3 BC near Terracina which is 56 km south-east of Rome - after a successful political career was made emperor for 7 months starting on Jun 8, 68 - he angered the Praetorian guard, and was assassinated on Jan 15, 69.

7.  Otho (Marcus Salvius Otho) 69 AD was born on Apr 22, 32 AD in Ferentinum (Ferento) about 100 km north of Rome - bought the services of the Praetorian guard and brutally murdered Galba and his adopted son Piso and was declared emperor - then prepared to fight Vitellius who was advancing on Italy with his legions from the lower Rhine - Otho committed suicide on Apr 16, 69 having served for only 3 months, declaring that it better for one to die for all, than many for one.

8.  Vitellius (Aulus Vitellius Germanicus) 69 AD was born on Sept 15, 15 AD probably near the Sabine territory north-east of Rome - a military leader, he disbanded the Praetorian guard and installed his own men to protect him - his administration lasted shortly, as the leader of the Eastern armies, Titus Flavius Vespasianus was proclaimed a rival emperor by his armies - Vitellius tried to resign as emperor and concede to Vespasian, however, he was murdered on Dec 22, 69.

9.  Vespasian (Titus Flavius Vespasianus) 69 - 79 AD was born on Nov 17, 9 AD in Falacrina in the Sabine country near Reate - he was the last of the 4 Emperors and the first of the short-lived Flavian dynasty - he participated in the invasion of Britain in 43 AD and was appointed in 66 AD to lead the war in Judea - he introduced financial reforms and built a number of show pieces, including the Colosseum in Rome - he died on June 23, 79 AD just 2 months prior to the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius which destroyed Pompei.

10. Titus (Titus Flavius Vespasianus) 79 - 81 AD was born on Dec 30, 39 AD in Rome, eldest son of Vespasius - served as a military leader under his father in Judea and led the armies that sacked Jerusalem and destroyed the temple in 70 AD - the Arch of Titus which stands at one entrance to the Forum in Rome, memorializes the victory of Titus - Mt. Vesuvius erupted shortly after the start of his reign, and the next year a large part of Rome was destroyed by fire, including the original Pantheon designed by Agrippa - he died of a fever on his way to the Sabine territory on Sept 13, 81 AD - possibly of natural causes, possibly with the help of his younger brother Domitian.

11.  Domitian (Titus Flavius Domitianus) 81 - 96 AD was born on Oct 24, 51 AD in Rome - younger brother of Titus - he openly rendered the Senate obsolete and assumed full control of the empire - he seems to have been a micro manager who became involved in all parts of the administration - set out to drive back the Dacians who were led by their king Decebalus - leaving the decisive victory to Trajan in 106 AD - he was assassinated on Sept 18, 96.

Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27 BC - 68 AD)

0.  Gaius Julius Caesar (Julius Caesar) 59 - 44 BC - born in Rome July 13, 100 BC he was a politician and general and formed the first Triumvirate with Pompey and Crassus - campaigned against Britain during the Gallic wars in 54 - 53 BC - when he returned to Rome in 50 BC he was put on trial by the Senate, which was led by Pompey, demonstrating a certain balance of power that existed at that time - Caesar defeated Pompey in 48 BC, went to Egypt and formed an alliance with Cleopatra - the Senate was not happy with the shift in power to one person and on March 15, 44 BC he was assassinated. This led to a 13 years of civil strife.

0.  Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) 44 - 30 BC - born a Roman citizen (possibly in Greece during a seige of Athens) on Jan 14, 83 BC - he was a friend and 2nd cousin of Julius Caesar - proved himself to be a capable military leader during the Gallic wars - he joined Caesar when he crossed the Rubicon in 50 BC to contest the Senate - became Caesar's right hand man - fled Rome after Caesar's assassination, but soon returned when it was apparant he was not targeted - formed the second Triumvirate with from 43 - 33 BC with Augustus Caesar and Lepidus - also formed an alliance with Cleopatra of Egypt - Octavian, assisted by his loyal general Marcus Agrippa, defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra, who subsequently committed suicide in Egypt on Aug 1, 30 BC.  Note: The Roman Pantheon was built by Hadrian to Agrippa's design. The Pantheon is inscribed with Agrippa's name.

1.  Caesar Augustus (Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus) 44 BC - 14 AD was born in Rome on Sept 23, 63 BC, and officially became the first emperor of the Roman Empire - Lepidus having lost power, and Anthony being defeated, Octavian was the most powerful in Rome - On Jan 16, 27 BC he officially restored the rule of Rome to the Senate and the people - he was rewarded with the name Augustus and emperorship, thus officially establishing a Principate - he died on Aug 19, 14 AD.

2.  Tiberius (Tiberius Claudius Nero) 14 - 37 AD was born in Rome on Nov 16, 42 BC and became step son to Augustus when his mother married him in 39 BC - he was emperor during the time that Jesus of Nazareth preached and was executed.  He died in Misenum (on the Gulf of Naples near Herculaneum and Pompeii from which Pliny the Elder observed the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius on Aug 24, 79 AD) on March 16, 37 AD.

3.  Caligula (Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus) 37 - 41 AD was born in Antium (Anzio) about 57 km south of Rome on Aug 30, 12 AD - has a reputation of being cruel and killing on a whim - accused of insanity - he was assassinated on Jan 24, 41 AD.

4.  Claudius (Tiberius Claudius Drusus) 41 - 54 AD was born in Lugdunum, Gaul (Lyon, France) on Aug 1, 10 BC - he was the uncle of Caligula and succeeded his nephew - during his reign Britain was conquered - he died apparantly by poisoning on Oct 13, 54 AD.

5.  Nero (Nero Claudius Caeser Augustus Germanicus) 54 - 68 AD was born in Antium (same as his maternal uncle, Caligula) on Dec 15, 37 AD - he was the fifth and last emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty at the age of 16, largely influenced by his mother Agrippina (whom he arranged to be murdered in 59 AD - in 60 AD Britain revolted and there was a great fire in Rome in 64 AD - there was also a Jewish revolt in Judea in 66 AD, which was finally put down in 70 AD with the destruction of the second temple in Jerusalem - after being declared as a public enemy by the senate, he escaped to a villa outside Rome where he finally committed suicide on Jun 9, 68 AD.

Notes - Chapt 3 - The Constitution of the Roman Empire - Age of the Antonines

Gibbons proceeds to set forth the manner in which the Roman Empire was governed. He defines a monarchy as a state in which one supreme leader is entrusted with the execution of the laws, the management of the revenue and the command of the army. We might also call this a military dictatorship. We must remember however, that this was a different age from ours. Considering the development of government during the 18th century, Gibbon may be drawing parallels to his own age, during which the French and American Revolutions took place.

He comments on how Augustus stripped the Senate of its independence, thus strengthening his own powers. The generals had absolute authority and power over their soldiers and the people they conquered and subsequently governed in the provinces. In fact they were monarchs or despots of their own territory.

Gibbon describes how starting with Augustus, the power of the Senate, the natural balance against a despotic monarchy, was eroded over the years to the point where he would define the governance of the Roman Empire as an absolute monarchy disguised by the forms of a commonwealth. The honours bestowed upon the emperor naturally culminated in their deification. With the adoption of the successor as a son, the emperor assumed the status of a god.

Taking us through the age of the Antonines, he lauds the wisdom of the emperor Marcus Aurelius, a practicing Stoic and philosopher who detested war. He is upheld as the example of a benevolent ruler. The benevolent Age of the Antonines is both preceded and succeeded by unworthy despotic regimes, starting with the reign of Commodus, which will be described in the next chapter.

Notes - Chapt 2 - The internal prosperity of the Roman Empire - Age of the Antonines

The 2nd chapter starts out "It is not alone by the rapidity, or extent of the conquest, that we should estimate the greatness of Rome."  From this we can see that Gibbon admires conquest of others and considers that this contributes to the greatness of the conqueror. I wonder what he would have thought of the conquests made by Hitler, which were both very rapid - blitzkrieg - and extensive.

Generally we don't want to judge the past by today's standards. However, I am not always impressed by today's standards. It is interesting however, that Hitler gloried in the past, and wanted to re-establish the old Roman empire as the Third Reich. Had he succeeded, we would have been extolling Hitler the Swift along with Alexander the Great.

Gibbons notes that the Roman empire was founded on freedom of worship. "The various modes of worship, which prevailed in the Roman world, were all considered by the Roman people, as equally true; by the philosopher, as equally false; and by the magistrate, as equally useful."  Basically a very pragmatic approach!

It is interesting that he depicts the Roman world as a tolerant one. In the preface to Foxe's Book of Martyrs, it is stated that "In all ages, we find that a disposition to persecute for opinion's sake, has been manifested by wicked men........ It is only when the heart has been renewed and sactified by divine grace, that men have rightly understood and practised the true principles of toleration." This is a common opinion and a very interesting one in light of Gibbon's observations. It is also interesting to note that during the period of the Reformation, whether it was Protestants persecuting Catholics, Catholics persecuting Protestants, or Protestants and Catholics teaming up to persecute Anabaptists, it was always Christians killing Christians. I don't recall any Jews or 'pagans' persecuting Christians!  Anyone knowing anything to the contrary, please let me know.  Please also note that the highly regarded John Calvin was responsible for the "martyrdom" of Michael Servetus.

A very interesting observation that Gibbon makes is that one of the strong points of the Roman Empire was that they invited citizens of other city states the same privileges and status as those of Rome. This encouraged them to be assimilated into the Roman family. This was not the case with the Greek city states, such as Athens and Sparta, which had a 'narrow' policy of preserving, without any foreign mixture, the pure blood of the ancient citizens. Perhaps a first attempt at a 'melting-pot' policy?  Or was it a multicultural policy as Canada has?  Considering the fact that they became Roman citizens, I would lean towards a melting pot. This is supported by the fact that many of the emperors did not come from Rome, but from the provinces.

Gibbon points out that Latin was the administrative language, even though Greek was still widely spoken in the east.  It is a well-known fact that Greek slaves were brought to Rome as teachers. It is interesting that the common Greek was still spoken in the middle east, although it was the Romans who were in control of the empire.  There was a measure of tolerance towards different cultures, languages, traditions and forms of worship.  Although Aramaic was spoken in Israel, and was the language spoken by the Jews in the time of Jesus and the apostles, all of the new testament books were written in Greek, with the exception of Matthew, which was probably first written in Aramaic, and subsequently translated to the Greek. The only surviving manuscripts of Matthew's gospel are in Greek.  The Old Testament was also translated into the Greek, and forms the basis of much of our understanding of the original Hebrew Old Testament.

In this chapter Gibbon actually says that 'the nations of the empire insensibly melted away into the Roman name and people.' This supports the melting pot theory. An interesting parallel to the present day U.S.A. which was also founded on religious freedom and has a melting pot policy.  In subsequent years, this has led to a high level of intolerance.  Another interesting parallel.... the Romans fully tolerated all forms of worship.  It was the 'non-allegiance' to the Roman empire and emperor that they did not tolerate. Similarily, the U.S.A. still tolerates different thoughts, but does not tolerate 'non-allegiance' to the flag, which represents their 'empire'.

Gibbon describes the mistreatment of slaves within the Roman Empire as a 'justified necessity'. In many respects, he defends this part of the Roman society, while it is known that he was a staunch opponent of the enslavement of free men from Africa in his own day. Interesting parallel again is the role of slaves in building up the wealth and prestige of both the Roman Empire and the U.S.A.

The nature of the peace that Gibbon exalts in the Roman Empire has nothing to do with living in a peaceful relationship with neighbouring countries. It has to do with the fact that there was a certain amount of freedom and peace within the borders of the empire. He describes the 'obedience of the Roman world as uniform, voluntary and permanent', in contrast to the despotic rulers in the East. Basically the legions were considered a peace keeping force serving the interests of the citizens, much as our police force tends to be.

Gibbon expends considerable effort in describing the monuments and structures erected by private Romans as a legacy to their name, as well as the intricate web of roads and aquaducts.

Notes - Chapt 1 - The extent of the Roman Empire - Age of the Antonines

Gibbons starts out by describing the Age of the Antonines as a happy period of more than 80 years, covering the administrative periods of Nerva (96-98), Trajan (98-117), Hadrian (117-138), Antoninus Pius (138-161) and Marcus Aurilius (161-180). The first 3 chapters deal with this period of prosperity and peace, nestled in between the infamous administrations of Domitian (81-96) and Commodus (180-192).

It is interesting that this is considered a time of prosperity and peace. It may have been for the inhabitants of the empire, but it certainly was not for those on the outskirts. Granted, the age of imperialism and expansion was passed.

Trajan was a soldier engaged in campaigns most of his life. In 106 he engaged in a campaign against the Dacians, which is present day Romania. Traian is still a name commonly given to children in Romania. He also campaigned against the Parthians, who resided in what is presently Iran and Iraq (Persia).  Hadrian is famous for his escapades in the British Isles, where a wall was built in his name. During his administration there was also a major rebellion by the Jewish Province (Bar Kokhba's revolt (132-5).

Antoninus Pius (86-161) was born in Nîmes in southern Gaul, presently southern France.  Interestingly enough, François Guizot, 22nd Prime Minister of France from 1847-8, who translated Gibbon's work into French in 1812, was also born in Nîmes, France. During his administration there were 2 'necessary' or 'defensive' wars against the wandering Moors who were driven into the solitudes of Atlas (I cannot find this), and against the Brigantes (a powerful Celtic tribe) of Britain, who had invaded the Roman province.

Gibbons describes that the military strength of the Roman empire was sufficient to keep the 'barbarians' at bay. It was Marcus Aurelius, the stoic philosopher, who was provoked by their hostilities and in a show of power justified his suppression of them as a 'just defence'.

While this may be typified as a time of peace and tranquility in ancient terms, I would say there was still a long way to go. They did not live in peace with their neighbours. Rather, they considered their neighbours as barbarians and uncivilized, who lived in fear and perhaps respect of the military might and superiority of the Roman Empire. 

What is interesting is that the majority of the first chapter is describing the military prowess of the Empire. The strength of the army was what kept the neighbouring tribes and kings at bay. Legions were established throughout the empire to 'keep the peace', and to keep the savages from rebelling.

It is interesting that Gibbon's perception of peace is far from what we would consider a peaceful co-existence of neighbouring countries. He only considers the peace within the empire which is kept by might. Indeed, instead of proving how peaceful the empire was during this period, he makes a strong case for saying that rule that is achieved by might, can only be maintained by might.

Gibbon continues to describe the extent of the empire - Britain to Romania, and northern Africa to the banks of the Rhine and Danube. Not much else to report.

John Foxe - Book of Martyrs

Another book that we bought today is John Foxe's Book of Martyrs. John Foxe (1517-1587) was a Puritan clergyman best known for writing the book in question. He focusses on the English Protestant martyrs starting in the 14th century.

My interest in the martyrs stem from the fact in today's world martyrdom is again prevalent. These are commonly referred to as suicide bombers, and there are many ways in which todays "martyrs" differ from those in past ages. Still, it may be interesting to see if there are any similarities.

Before starting my reading, I must state that I will be looking for parallels in today's events. Was the Roman Empire born in religious freedom as was the U.S.A? What led to the intollerance for differing ideas? How much of martyrdom was Christian vs. Christian?  What lessons can we draw from the ancient world? Can this situation be avoided?

Gibbon's History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

A good friend of mine recommended the reading of the above book last night. My good wife downloaded the 6 volumes onto my kindle for 3 dollars this morning. I hope that I have the full version and not an abridged version. Please feel free to join me in the reading of these volumes. I will add my notes and thoughts as I journey through the ages. I will also add the thoughts of others. Please feel free to add yours too.

Reading through the chapter headings, it is evident that we will be starting at the pre-Christian era and journeying through the early Christian period and crusading right up to the middle ages.

Edward Gibbon (1737-1794) was both a historian and a Member of Parliament. These 6 volumes were published during a 12 year period, between 1776 and 1788. Interestingly, this coincides with the birth of an existing world power, the United States of America.

I am interested in what I will discover about the blood of the martyrs, which has been described by Tertullian (160-225), an early Christian writer, as the seed of the church. I want to understand the dynamics of these times and help to establish lessons from this history. I will try to make connections or draw parallels to what is happening in the world today. I will also include my readings and research from other sources. Please don't hesitate to add your own insights and thoughts to this journey. Your participation will make my own journey more enjoyable.